Digital Literacy and Educational Empowerment Among Rural Women in Bangladesh: Bridging the Technology Access Gap
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.18485/ijdrm.2025.7.2.13Keywords:
digital literacy, technology access, rural education, gender inequality, digital divideAbstract
This study explores how digital literacy influences the education and empowerment of rural women in Bangladesh from 2015 to 2024. Using data from surveys, semi-structured interviews, and focus groups, it examines how rural women access digital technologies, the challenges they face, and the social and educational benefits of increased digital engagement. Despite growth in digital literacy and ICT access over the past decade, rural women still face significant hurdles, including socioeconomic barriers, cultural and gender norms, limited digital infrastructure, high device costs, and unequal training opportunities. These structural issues, along with regional differences and low digital awareness, continue to widen the gender digital divide. The findings show that digital literacy significantly enhances educational participation, access to online learning, communication, and opportunities for income generation and entrepreneurship. The COVID-19 pandemic has further highlighted the importance of digital skills for maintaining educational continuity and for remote service access. However, participation remains uneven, especially among the most marginalized rural groups. The study emphasizes the need for targeted, gender-sensitive digital literacy programs that address affordability, connectivity, and cultural barriers. It also recommends policies to improve rural ICT infrastructure, expand community-based training, and foster inclusive digital ecosystems. Overall, this research provides new empirical evidence, showing that digital literacy—when combined with accessible infrastructure and culturally appropriate programs—can be a powerful tool for closing educational gaps, enabling socioeconomic mobility, and advancing gender equality in rural Bangladesh.
Downloads
References
1. ADB (2019). Gender and digital literacy in rural schools.
2. ADB (2019). ICT and women's empowerment in Bangladesh.
3. ADB (2019). ICT for rural women: Barriers and opportunities.
4. ADB (2020). Asian development outlook 2020: Technology and the future of work. Asian Development Bank;
5. Ahmed, N., Sinha, A., Saha, A., Rony, R. J., Khan, S. S., Abeer, I. A., & Hasan, M. (2022, December). Structured training as an enabler for women in ICT: A case study from Bangladesh. In 2022 IEEE International Conference on Teaching, Assessment and Learning for Engineering (TALE) (pp. 120-124). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/TALE54877.2022.00027
6. Akter, M., & Husain, T. (2021). The impact of the Union Digital Centre on women's empowerment: An assessment of the Union Digital Center on women's empowerment in rural areas of Bangladesh. Dynamics of Public Administration, 38(2), 188-197. https://doi.org/10.5958/0976-0733.2021.00014.6
7. Akter, R., Roy, T., & Aktar, R. (2023). The Challenges of Women in Post-disaster Health Management: A Study in Khulna District. International Journal of Disaster Risk Management, 5(1), 51–66. https://doi.org/10.18485/ijdrm.2023.5.1.5
8. Akter, S. (2024). Digitalization of education in rural schools: A study of access, utilization, and impact toward digitalization in Bangladesh. American International Journal of Multidisciplinary Scientific Research, 15(1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v15i1.2205
9. Alam, M. J., Pervez, A. K. M., Kabir, M. S., Amin, M. R., & Bhuiya, R. A. (2023). The challenges and prospects of e-learning in higher education in Bangladesh: A review. Asian Journal of Education and Social Studies, 43(1), 10-19. https://doi.org/10.9734/ajess/2023/v43i1931
10. Al-Amin, S. Y. E. E. D. U. L., Rony, A. K., & Rahman, S. S. (2024). Impact of women entrepreneurship on digital entrepreneurship: A focus on women’s participation in Bangladesh. Jilin Daxue Xuebao (Gongxueban)/Journal of Jilin University (Engineering and Technology Edition), 43(10), 137-150. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13969563
11. Amin, S., & UN.ESCAP. (2024). Critical analysis of ICT connectivity in rural Bangladesh: Importance, constraints, and the way forward. United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific. https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12870/7510
12. Ateş, Ö., Bayram, G. E., & Bayram, A. T. (2025). The impact of digital tools on the economic empowerment of rural women. In Empowering Women Through Rural Sustainable Development and Entrepreneurship. IGI Global Scientific Publishing. (pp. 309-324).x. https://doi.org/10.4018/979-8-3693-6572-4.ch016
13. Awaghade, A. B. (2022). Online education: issues and challenges in digital equality. International Journal of Human Rights and Constitutional Studies, 9(4), 369-380. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJHRCS.2022.126183
14. Aziz, A., & Naima, U. (2021). Rethinking digital financial inclusion: Evidence from Bangladesh. Technology in Society, 64, 101509. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2020.101509
15. BD Govt. National ICT policy (2017). Government of Bangladesh; United Nations Development Programme.
16. Beli, A., Renner, R., Cvetković, V. M., Ivanov, A., & Gačić, J. (2025). A Cross-National Study of Disaster Risk Management: Strengths and Weaknesses in Bulgaria, Romania, and Albania with Reflections on Serbia. International Journal of Disaster Risk Management, 7(1), 431–460. https://doi.org/10.18485/ijdrm.2025.7.1.25
17. Bhuiyan, M. I. U., & Mollik, M. M. (2023). Leveraging technology to enhance quality education in primary schools: Opportunities and challenges in Bangladesh. In Global Perspectives on Value Education in Primary School (pp. 35-57). https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-6684-9295-6.ch003
18. BRAC. (2017). Barriers to ICT access in rural Bangladesh.
19. BRAC. (2017). ICT in education: Empowering rural girls in Bangladesh.
20. BRAC. (2017). Women and technology: Bridging the digital divide in rural Bangladesh.
21. BRAC. (2019). Empowering rural women through technology. BRAC; Asian Development Bank
22. BRAC. (2020). COVID-19 and the rural digital divide.
23. BRAC. (2020). Digital inclusion for rural women in Bangladesh.
24. BRAC. (2020). Technology for learning: Empowering rural women in education.
25. BRAC. (2022). Digital literacy programs for women in rural Bangladesh. BRAC;
26. Cvetković, V. & Šišović, V. (2024). Capacity Building in Serbia for Disaster and Climate Risk Education. Disaster and Climate Risk Education Insights from Knowledge to Action, edited by Ayse Yildiz and Rajib Shaw, book series Disaster Risk Reduction, Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd., 152 Beach Road.
27. Cvetković, V. (2016). The relationship between educational level and citizen preparedness for responding to natural disasters. Journal of the Geographical Institute “Jovan Cvijić” SASA, 66(2), 237–253.
28. Cvetković, V. M. (2023). A Predictive Model of Community Disaster Resilience based on Social Identity Influences (MODERSI). International Journal of Disaster Risk Management, 5(2), 57–80. https://doi.org/10.18485/ijdrm.2023.5.2.5
29. Cvetković, V., & Katarina, A. (2019). Edukacija građana o smanjenju rizika od katastrofa korišćenjem multimedijalnih sadržaja – društvene igre, kompjuterske igrice i simulacije [Citizen education for disaster risk reduction using multimedia content – board games, computer games and simulations]. Vojno delo, 71(6), 122–151.
30. Cvetković, V., & Svrdlin, M. (2020). Vulnerability of women to the consequences of naturally caused disasters: the Svilajnac case study [Ugroženost žena od posledica prirodno izazvanih katastrofa]. Bezbednost, 62(3), 43–61.
31. Cvetković, V., Tarolli, P., Roder, G., Ivanov, A., Ronan, K., Öcal, A., & Kutub, R. (2017). Citizens education about floods: A Serbian case study. 7th International Scientific Conference “Archibald Reiss Days”, Academy of Criminalistics and Police Studies, Belgrade.
32. Dada, K. S. J., Mohammed, H. A., Mallam, D., & Ajayi, E. O. (2025). Security of information resources in Federal College of Education libraries in Northwest Nigeria. International Journal of Contemporary Security Studies, 1(1), 85–98. https://doi.org/10.18485/fb_ijcss.2025.1.1.7
33. Domingo Dela Cruz, R. ., & Ormilla, R. C. G. (2022). Disaster Risk Reduction Management Implementation in the Public Elementary Schools of the Department of Education, Philippines. International Journal of Disaster Risk Management, 4(2), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.18485/ijdrm.2022.4.2.1
34. Emon, M. H., & Nipa, M. N. (2024). Exploring the gender dimension in entrepreneurship development: A systematic literature review in the context of Bangladesh. Westcliff International Journal of Applied Research, 8(1), 34-49. https://doi.org/10.47670/wuwijar202481mhemnn
35. Farley, I. A., & Burbules, N. C. (2022). Online education viewed through an equity lens: Promoting engagement and success for all learners. Review of Education, 10(3), e3367. https://doi.org/10.1002/rev3.3367
36. Gajović, A., Cvetković, V. M., Renner, R., & Milašinović, S. (2025). Digital Platform for Ecological Education of Students – Advancing the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and the European Green Deal: The Case of ProSafeNet (Global Hub). International Journal of Contemporary Security Studies, 1 (2).
37. Goswami, T., & Ahmad, A. (2025). Integrating Disability into Disaster Management Education in India: A Critical Review. International Journal of Disaster Risk Management, 7(1), 163–176. https://doi.org/10.18485/ijdrm.2025.7.1.9
38. Haque, A., Haque, W., Ahmed, E., Islam, M. Z., & Islam, M. K. (2023). Empowering women through IT: The role of the IT sector in Bangladesh. Saudi Journal of Economics and Finance, 7(10), 459-465. https://doi.org/10.36348/sjef.2023.v07i10.005
39. Hoque, M. R., Sorwar, G., & Hossain, M. U. (2022). Sustainable rural development through union digital center: The citizen empowerment perspective. 55th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences | 2022, 2732-2741. http://hdl.handle.net/10125/79672
40. Hoque, S. M. S., & Kabir, M. A. A. (2024). Assessing ICT and e-government service through UDC in Bangladesh: Rural dwellers’ economic benefits. Electronic Government, an International Journal, 20(2), 161-174. https://doi.org/10.1504/EG.2023.10046454
41. Hossain, B., Fatima, M. J., Muzykant, V. L., Hoesin, C. F. I. S., & Nahiduzzaman, M. (2023). An overview of digital media literacy in digital Bangladesh. Jurnal Cita Hukum, 11(2), 267-288. https://doi.org/10.15408/jch.v11i2.34755
42. Hussain, B. M., & Chen, D. (2018, August). Information & communication technology (ICT) can change the way of women entrepreneurs run their businesses: A case study in Bangladesh. In 2018 Portland International Conference on Management of Engineering and Technology (PICMET) (pp. 1-6). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.23919/PICMET.2018.8481852
43. ICT Division. (2018). Challenges in rural connectivity and women’s ICT use.
44. ICT Division. (2018). Digital Bangladesh Vision 2021.
45. ICT Division. (2018). The role of technology in enhancing rural education.
46. ICT Division. (2021). Digital Bangladesh 2021 report. Ministry of Posts, Telecommunications, and Information Technology, Bangladesh;
47. ICT Division. (2022). Bringing digital education to rural Bangladesh.
48. ICT Division. (2022). Connecting the unconnected: Internet access in rural Bangladesh.
49. ICT Division. (2022). Overcoming connectivity gaps in rural areas.
50. ICT Division. (2024). Digital literacy and its impact on education in rural Bangladesh.
51. ICT Division. (2024). National connectivity and digital literacy survey 2024.
52. ICT Division. (2024). National ICT development strategy for 2024. Ministry of Posts, Telecommunications, and Information Technology, Bangladesh.
53. ICT Division. (2024). Overcoming barriers in rural digital literacy in Bangladesh.
54. Islam, K. A., & Khan, M. S. (2024). The role of financial literacy, digital literacy, and financial self-efficacy in fintech adoption. Investment Management and Financial Innovations, 21(2), 369-380. https://doi.org/10.21511/imfi.21(2).2024.30
55. Islam, M. M., & Islam, M. M. (2023). E-learning in Bangladesh: Challenges and overcoming strategies. Journal of the National Academy for Planning and Development (NAPD), 32(1), 79-100.
56. Islam, M. N., & Inan, T. T. (2021). Exploring the fundamental factors of digital inequality in Bangladesh. Sage Open, 11(2), 21582440211021407. https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440211021407
57. Islam, M. R. (2017). Non-governmental organizations and community development in Bangladesh. International Social Work, 60(2), 479-493. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020872815574133
58. Islam, M. R., & Mostafiz, F. (2024). Impact of soft skills training on rural women’s development in Bangladesh: A mixed-method approach. BUFT Journal of Business & Economics (BJBE), 5, 223-245. https://doi.org/10.58481/BJBE/2415
59. Ivanov, A., & Cvetković, V. (2014). The Role of Education in Natural Disaster Risk Reduction. Horizons, International Scientific Journal, 16, 115–131.
60. Jakovljević, V., Cvetković, V., & Gačić, J. (2015). Prirodne katastrofe i obrazovanje [Natural Disasters and Education]. Beograd: Fakultet bezbednosti, Univerzitet u Beogradu.
61. Jevtić, M., Cvetković, V. M., Gačić, J., & Raonić, Z. (2025). Factors of Vulnerability and Resilience of Persons with Disabilities During Disasters: Challenges and Strategies for Inclusive Risk Reduction. International Journal of Disaster Risk Management, 7(1), 91–114. https://doi.org/10.18485/ijdrm.2025.7.1.6
62. Karmaker, R., & Lemon, M. H. A. (2024). Female students, dropping out of education. Indonesian Journal of Multidiciplinary Research, 4(1), 77-88.
63. Karmaker, R., & Lemon, M. H. A. (2024). Female students, dropping out of education. Indonesian Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 4(1), 77–88.
64. Karmaker, R., & Rahman, R. (2024). Female having education in the world of technology wading obstacle facing religious and social barrier. ASEAN Journal of Religion, Education, and Society, 3(1), 23-36. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.35051.11046
65. Karmaker, R., & Rahman, R. (2024). Female having education in the world of technology wading obstacle facing religious and social barrier. ASEAN Journal of Religion, Education, and Society, 3(1), 23–36. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.35051.11046
66. Khan, A. S. N., Mansur, M., Pamela, K. S., & Promy, N. K. (2024). Women business moving beyond development enigma. Journal of Global Entrepreneurship Research, 14(1), 5. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40497-023-00374-0
67. Khatun, F., Heywood, A. E., Hanifi, S. M. A., Rahman, M. S., Ray, P. K., Liaw, S. T., & Bhuiya, A. (2017). Gender differentials in readiness and use of mHealth services in a rural area of Bangladesh. BMC Health Services Research, 17, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-017-2523-6
68. Khatun, F., Saadat, S. Y., & Islam, M. J. (2021). Digital platform economy in Bangladesh: Opportunities and challenges. CPD Report 11, Centre for Policy Dialogue (CPD).
69. Kutub, J. R., Cvetković, V. M., & Huq, S. (2017). Assessment of women’s vulnerability and their coping mechanism living in flood prone areas: A case study of Belkuchi Upazila, Sirajganj. Serbian Science Today, 2(1), 35–43.
70. Mančić, T. (2025). Climate change as a security challenge, risk and threat of the 21st century and its consequences on critical infrastructure. International Journal of Contemporary Security Studies, 1(1), 191–204. https://doi.org/10.18485/fb_ijcss.2025.1.1.14
71. Milenković, D. (2025). Theoretical, institutional and organizational aspects of the integrated disaster risk reduction system: Towards a deeper understanding of disaster resilience in Serbia. International Journal of Contemporary Security Studies, 1(1), 175–190. https://doi.org/10.18485/fb_ijcss.2025.1.1.13
72. Milenković, D. ., Cvetković, V. M., & Renner, R. (2024). A Systematic Literary Review on Community Resilience Indicators: Adaptation and Application of the BRIC Method for Measuring Disasters Resilience . International Journal of Disaster Risk Management, 6(2), 79–104. https://doi.org/10.18485/ijdrm.2024.6.2.6
73. Nikey, R. (2024). Digital landscape and women entrepreneurship development in Bangladesh (Doctoral dissertation, Brac University). http://hdl.handle.net/10361/24750
74. Noor, S., & Hoque, M. (2021). Access to mobile phones and women’s socio-economic empowerment in rural areas of Bangladesh: Understanding gender relation transformation. Indonesian Journal of Social Research (IJSR), 3(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.30997/ijsr.v2i3.105
75. Onimisi, T. (2025). Improved security and education: Pathways to national development. International Journal of Contemporary Security Studies, 1(1), 205–212. https://doi.org/10.18485/fb_ijcss.2025.1.1.15
76. Perić, J., & Cvetković, V. M. (2019). Demographic, socio-economic and phycological perspective of risk perception from disasters caused by floods: case study Belgrade. International Journal of Disaster Risk Management, 1(2), 31–45. https://doi.org/10.18485/ijdrm.2019.1.2.3
77. Popović, M., & Cvetković, V. (2012). Žene u mirovnim operacijama i odlučivanju u sektoru bezbednosti [Women in peacekeeping operations and decision-making in the security sector]. Kultura – Polis, 1(1), 201–214.
78. Rahman, M. A., & Parvin, R. A. (2024). Advancing Bangladesh’s digital transition: From digital foundations to technological leadership. Technological Innovation and Emerging Operational Applications in Digital Earth, https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202410.0441.v1
79. Rahman, M. S., Haque, M. E., Afrad, M. S. I., Hasan, S. S., & Rahman, M. A. (2023). Impact of mobile phone usage on empowerment of rural women entrepreneurs: Evidence from rural Bangladesh. Heliyon, 9(11). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e21604
80. Rana, M., & Rahman, A. (2022). Attitude of citizens towards e-government services in digital Bangladesh. Dhaka University Journal of Management, 161-189. https://doi.org/10.57240/DUJMJUNE11
81. Rashid, A. T. (2016). Digital inclusion and social inequality: Gender differences in ICT access and use in five developing countries. Gender, Technology and Development, 20(3), 306-332. https://doi.org/10.1177/0971852416660651
82. Renner, R., & Mayr-Veselinovic, C. (2025). Social License to Operate: Where Are You? The Role of Risk Communication in Raw Material Extraction. International Journal of Contemporary Security Studies, 1(1), 49–74. https://doi.org/10.18485/fb_ijcss.2025.1.1.5
83. Sarker, A. (2020). ICT for women’s empowerment in rural Bangladesh (Doctoral dissertation, Monash University).
84. Siddiquee, M. S. H., & Islam, M. S. (2024). Factors determining the first and second level of digital divide in rural Bangladesh. SN Social Sciences, 4(10), 189. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43545-024-00988-5
85. Sudar, S., Cvetković, V. M., & Ivanov, A. (2024). Harmonization of Soft Power and Institutional Skills: Montenegro’s Path to Accession to the European Union in the Environmental Sector . International Journal of Disaster Risk Management, 6(1), 41–74. https://doi.org/10.18485/ijdrm.2024.6.1.4
86. Sultana, S., Guimbretière, F., Sengers, P., & Dell, N. (2018, April). Design within a patriarchal society: Opportunities and challenges in designing for rural women in Bangladesh. In Proceedings of the 2018 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 1-13). https://doi.org/10.1145/3173574.3174110
87. Sultana, S., Mandel, I., Hasan, S., Alam, S. R., Mahmud, K. R., Sultana, Z., & Ahmed, S. I. (2021, June). Opaque obstacles: The role of stigma, rumor, and superstition in limiting women’s access to computing in rural Bangladesh. In Proceedings of the 4th ACM SIGCAS Conference on Computing and Sustainable Societies (pp. 243-260). https://doi.org/10.1145/3460112.3471960
88. Tasnima, T., Abu Bakar Ah, S. H., Padzil, R., & Md Syed, M. A. (2024). It’s a men’s world: Influence of media literacy for women’s empowerment through social media engagement in Bangladesh. Information Development. https://doi.org/10.1177/02666669241303723
89. Ullah, M. S. (2017). Empowerment of the rural poor through access to ICT: A case study of the union information and service center initiative in Bangladesh. Journal of Creative Communications, 12(2), 81-97. https://doi.org/10.1177/0973258617708366
90. Ullah, M. S. (2020). ICTs, power prejudice, and empowerment: Digital exclusion of the poor in rural Bangladesh. In Digital Inequalities in the Global South (pp. 103-133). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-32706-4_6
91. UNDP (2018). Human development report 2018: Digital transformation in Bangladesh. United Nations Development Programme.
92. UNDP. (2015). Gender, ICT, and development: Challenges for rural women.
93. UNDP. (2015). Impact of technology on education in rural Bangladesh.
94. UNDP. (2015). Internet for all: A global study of digital access.
95. UNESCO. (2015). Education for all 2015 national review Bangladesh. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization;
96. UNICEF. (2021). Barriers to internet access and digital skills for rural girls.
97. UNICEF. (2021). Digital learning for rural girls in Bangladesh.
98. UNICEF. (2021). Education and technology: A look at Bangladesh's rural women.
99. Vračević, N. (2025). Strategic roles of private military companies: The evolution and privatization of warfare in the context of contemporary global conflicts. International Journal of Contemporary Security Studies, 1(1), 163–174. https://doi.org/10.18485/fb_ijcss.2025.1.1.12
100. Waldman, L., Ahmed, T., Scott, N., Akter, S., Standing, H., & Rasheed, S. (2018). 'We have the internet in our hands': Bangladeshi college students’ use of ICTs for health information. Globalization and Health, 14, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-018-0349-6
101. World Bank. (2016). ICT for education: Rural women’s experiences.
102. World Bank. (2016). The gender digital divide in Bangladesh.
103. World Bank. (2016). World Development Report 2016.
104. World Bank. (2016). World development report 2016: Digital dividends. World Bank Group; Bangladesh Government
105. World Bank. (2023). Bridging the gender digital divide in Bangladesh.
106. World Bank. (2023). Digital economy for Bangladesh: Trends and opportunities. World Bank Group;
107. World Bank. (2023). Digital skills for rural students in Bangladesh.
108. World Bank. (2023). Global information technology report.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Vladimir M. Cvetković, Ritesh Karmaker
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
This journal operates under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, reproduction, adaptation, and transformation in any medium, provided the original author and source are properly credited.
Authors retain the copyright of their articles.
The International Journal of Disaster Risk Management (IJDRM) encourages and permits authors to:
-
Post pre-print (submitted version), post-print (accepted version), and publisher’s version/PDF of their articles on personal websites, institutional repositories, disciplinary repositories, and academic networks such as ResearchGate, Academia.edu, or departmental websites,
-
Do so at any time, including before or after publication,
-
Provided that appropriate credit is given to the original publication in this journal, including:
-
Full bibliographic details
-
A clear mention of the journal name
-
A direct link to the article’s DOI (as an HTML link)
-
No prior permission is required from the publisher or editors for such actions, as long as the terms of the CC BY 4.0 license are followed.
